INFORMATION CONFRONTATION: THE EVOLUTION OF U.S. COGNITIVE STRATEGIES AFTER THE COLD WAR (1991–2014)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.32782/2307-7778/2025.2.3Keywords:
cognitive warfare, psychological operations, United States, strategic communications, information security, cognitive superiority, propagandAbstract
The purpose of the study is to provide a comprehensive analysis of the evolution of the UnitedStates’ cognitive strategies within the framework of information confrontation during 1991–2014 as a componentof the transformation of its military-strategic doctrine after the end of the Cold War. Particular attention is paid to the transition from the concept of “soft power” to the development of a systemic approach in planning and implementing information operations aimed at achieving cognitive superiority. The research methodologyis based on the principles of historicism, scientific objectivity, systematization, and interdisciplinarity. General scientific methods (analysis, synthesis, generalization) and special historical methods (comparative-historical,historical-genetic, and historical-typological) were applied. The scientific novelty lies in a systematic interpretation of the cognitive dimension of American psychological operations as a consistent processof transition from information dominance to the management of the adversary’s behavioral models. It has beenproved that between the 1990s and the early 2010s, a gradual institutionalization of cognitive practices took place in U.S. military doctrines, driven by the evolution of communication technologies and the experience of wars in the Balkans, Afghanistan, and Iraq. Conclusions. The study establishes that the experience of this period laid the foundation for the modern paradigm of cognitive warfare, in which information-psychologicalconfrontation became an instrument for achieving strategic advantage through influence on the perception,decision-making, and behavior of the adversary.
References
Nye J. S. Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power. New York : Basic Books, 1990. 327 p.
Arquilla J., Ronfeldt D. In Athena’s Camp: Preparing for Conflict in the Information Age. Santa Monica : RAND Corporation, 1997. 425 p.
Department of Defense. Psychological Operations: Principles and Case Studies. Maxwell Air Force Base : Air University Press, 1996. 250 p.
Joint Chiefs of Staff. Joint Publication 3-53: Doctrine for Joint Psychological Operations. Washington, D.C., 1996. 132 p.
U.S. Department of Defense. Operation Enduring Freedom: Psychological Operations Reports. Washington, D.C., 2001–2003. URL: https://apps.dtic.mil (дата звернення: 01.11.2025).
Department of the Army. FM 3-05.301 Psychological Operations Process: Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures. Washington, D.C. : Headquarters, Department of the Army, 2003. 210 p.
U.S. Department of Defense. Information Operations Roadmap. Washington, D.C., 2003.URL: https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB177/info_ops_roadmap.pdf (дата звернення: 02.11.2025).
Alberts D. S., Hayes R. E. Power to the Edge: Command, Control in the Information Age. Washington, D.C. : CCRP Publication Series, 2003. 267 p.
Paddock A. H. Jr. Psychological and Information Operations: Lessons Learned from the Iraq War. Carlisle, PA : U.S. Army War College, 2003. 88 p.
Joint Chiefs of Staff. Joint Publication 3-13: Information Operations. Washington, D.C., 2006. 174 p.
Paul C. Information Operations – Doctrine and Practice: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara : Praeger Security International, 2008. 265 p.
RAND Corporation. Strategic Communication and Influence Operations: Doctrinal Development and Integration. Santa Monica : RAND, 2008.
Department of the Army. FM 3-05.301 Psychological Operations Process (updated edition). Washington, D.C., 2007. 200 p.
U.S. Department of Defense. Military Information Support Operations (MISO) Doctrine. Washington, D.C., 2010. 156 p.
Giles K. The Next Phase of Russian Information Warfare. NATO Defence College Research Paper No. 9. Rome, 2016. URL: https://www.ndc.nato.int/news/news.php?icode=995 (дата звернення: 04.11.2025).
Alberts D. S., Garstka J. J., Stein F. P. Network Centric Warfare: Developing and Leveraging Information Superiority. Washington, D.C. : CCRP Publication Series, 2000. 299 p.
U.S. Joint Forces Command. Commander’s Handbook for Strategic Communication and Communication Strategy. Norfolk, VA, 2012. 115 p.
NATO Allied Command Transformation (ACT). Cognitive Dimension of Warfare – Interim Findings Report. Norfolk, VA : NATO ACT, 2014. 94 p.
